R Campos–Oliva1; N.W. Solomons1
1Center for Studies of Sensory Impairment, Aging and Metabolism (CeSSIAM), Guatemala
ABSTRACT
Introduction:
The recommended intakes of essential nutrients are expressed as amounts to be consumed daily in isolation of any dietary context. As nutrients are obtained from the foods and beverages that contain them, an approach was developed in 1998 to evaluate the adequacy of nutrient intake in terms of appropriate dietary energy consumption, and has been termed “desired” or “critical” nutrient density. For certain vitamins and minerals, their consumption in excess can have adverse impacts in the direction of toxicity, and these are quantified as tolerable upper intake levels (UL) As with the side of adequate intake, the expressions of excess consumption are daily amounts in isolation of a dietary context.
Objective:
To design a system for expression and analysis of dietary nutrients based on the approach of critical nutrient density in excess.
Methods:
We use the summary tables of the Reference Dietary Intakes (US and Canada) for the nutrient ULs, specific to age–groups. We use the estimated daily energy requirements of the FAO/WHO/UNU Human Energy Requirements (2006) for male and female children from 1 to 13 years. The numerators for the density calculations are the ULs, whereas the denominators are the specific energy needs. The ratios are normalized to per 1000 kcal for the critical density expression. A higher density expression is considered to be more protective than a lower one.
Results:
The calculations generated from 18 nutrients and 26 age – sex groups resulted in a composite matrix with 468 total cells. Critical densities were consistently higher in girls than in boys. In no instance is the recommendation higher than the UL. With abundant fortification in diets, densities of vitamin A and zinc could exceed the density by excess.
Conclusions:
Children can be at risk for excess intakes of certain nutrients at certain ages of life. The need to relate nutrient intakes to their food and beverage sources suggests that an approach of critical nutrient density for excess is a valuable initiative.
Zamora, A.1; Rivera, E.1; Hernandez, A.2; García, OP.3; Gil, M.4; Flores, K.4; Solomons, NW.1; y Bibus, D.5
1Center for Studies of Sensory Impairment, Aging and Metabolism (CeSSIAM), Guatemala
2Departamento de Agroindustria Alimentaria, Universidad Zamorano, Honduras
3Facultdad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, México
4Unidad pediátrica, Hospital Universitario Reina Sofia de Córdoba, España and 5 Lipid Technologies LLC, Minnesota, US
ABSTRACT
Background:
Most attention in the field of dietary fatty acids (FAs) is focused on the class of polyunsaturated acids (PUFAs) especially the omega–3 and 6 families. There are several monounsaturated acids (MUFAs) that can be synthesized or consumed from food and that are part of the diets of infants through the consumption of breast milk.
Objectives:
To compare the behavior of monounsaturated fatty acids in breast milk during the second month of lactation of lactating women, in four different geographical locations.
Methods:
With a common protocol, 25 samples of human milk from women in the second month of lactation were collected and dried on cardboard cards in four sites: Guatemala (G); Honduras (H); México (M); and Spain (S). Samples of breast milk were dried on PerkinElmer®226 five–spot RUO cards and FAs quantified at Lipid Technologies LLC Laboratory in Minnesota, USA. Abundance of individual or in classes FAs was expressed with reference to the amount of total fat as 100% (grams per 100 grams).
Results:
The analyses quantified 34 FAs from C–14 to C–24; of which, 12 were MUFAs. These included: 14:1; 15:1; 16:1w5; 16:1w7; 17:1; 18:1w9; 18:1w7; 18:1w5; 20:1w9; 22:1w9; and 24:1. In descending order, the median weight percent of total MUFAs by site were: 44.63 (S); 43.07(H); 42.81 (M); and 37.90 (G). In all instances, 18:1w9 (oleic acid) was the dominant MUFA, comprising 80–90% of the class. The second most abundant MUFA was 16:1w7 (palmitoleic acid). The ratios of median 16:1w7/ median 18:1w9 were: 0.136 (G); 0.088 (H); 0.063 (M); and 0.050 (S). The Spearman rho values for associations of 16:1w7 (y axis) and 18:1w9 within sites ranged from –0.063 to 0.248.
Conclusions:
Unlike the 15 PUFAs, which demonstrate more quantitative diversity and heterogeneity, MUFAs biology is basically encompassed by only two FAs. It is however, of interest to explore geographic differences in the profiles of MUFAs in maternal milk.
Zamora, A.1; Rivera, E.1; Hernandez, A.2; García, OP.3; Gil, M.4; Flores, K.4; Solomons, NW.1; y Bibus, D.5
1Center for Studies of Sensory Impairment, Aging and Metabolism (CeSSIAM), Guatemala
2Departamento de Agroindustria Alimentaria, Universidad Zamorano, Honduras
3Facultdad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, México
4Unidad pediátrica, Hospital Universitario Reina Sofia de Córdoba, España
5Lipid Technologies LLC, Minnesota, USA
ABSTRACT
Background:
Most attention in the field of dietary fatty acids (FAs) is focused on the class of polyunsaturated acids (PUFAs) which include the omega–3 and 6 families. Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) come mainly from animal and dairy fats. Considerable levels of SFA can found in some tropical oils, especially palm and coconut oils. Breast milk provides mainly saturated (palmitic acid) and monounsaturated (oleic acid) fatty acids.
Objectives:
To compare the behavior of saturated fatty acids in breast milk during the second month of lactation of lactating women, in four different geographical locations.
Methods:
With a common protocol, 25 samples of human milk from women in the second month of lactation were collected and dried on cardboard cards in four sites: Guatemala (G); Honduras (H); México (M); and Spain (S). Samples of breast milk were dried on PerkinElmer®226 five–spot RUO cards and FAs quantified at Lipid Technologies LLC Laboratory in Minnesota, USA. Abundance of individual or in classes FAs was expressed with reference to the amount of total fat as 100% (grams per 100 grams).
Results:
The analyses quantified 34 FAs from C–14 to C–24; of which, 8 were SFAs. These included: 12:0 (lauric acid); 14:0 (myristic acid); 15:0 (pentadecyl acid); 16:0 (palmitic acid); 18:0 (stearic acid); 20:0 (arachidic acid); 22:0 (behenic acid); and 24:0 (lignoceric acid). Regardless of geography, the SFA profile was dominated by three fatty acids: 14:0; 16:0; and 18:0 which constitute more than 98% of SFA; as expected, 18:0 was predominant. From the results obtained, was found abundance <0.1 of the other five SFA. In descending order, the median relative abundance (%) of SFAs by site were: 41.48 (H); 37.01(G); 32.05 (M); and 29.57 (S). The corresponding median value in wt(%) for 18:0 was: 5.31 (S); 4.90 (H); 4.58 (M); and 3.82 (G).
Conclusions:
We found geographical differences in SFA profiles. As in expressions of relative abundance is reciprocal, part of the dominance of SFA in Honduras is explain by scarcity of PUFA.
Alvarado–Tzul, C., Escobar–Sánchez, M., Solomons, N.
Center for Studies of Sensory Impairment, Aging and Metabolism (CeSSIAM), Guatemala City, Guatemala
ABSTRACT
Introduction:
The NOVA system is a tool which establishes four level of food processing (Monteiro, 2019). It has been questioned for the breadth and rigidity of its definitions. Because the complexity of processing certain foods can be prone to interpretation, there could be inconsistent placement in the different classification groups.
Objective:
To evaluate the consistency of the NOVA system in the classification of foods consumed by rural schoolchildren in the western highlands of Guatemala among nutrition students.
Methods:
A single 24–hour pictorial dietary intake record was collected from 115 schoolchildren aged 8 to 11 years in a rural school in the highlands of Guatemala. Five students with closed Nutrition curriculum were asked individually to follow the criteria established by the system to classify foods into minimally processed foods (G1), processed culinary ingredients (G2), processed foods (G3) and ultra–processed products (G4). The strength of the agreement between the students’ classification was established according to the analysis of the Kappa coefficient in EPIDAT 4.2 software, with values between 0 and 1, with the best reproducibility being closest to 1.
Results:
A total of 132 foods showed discrepancies in their classification. The strength of agreement for each evaluated group was as follows: G1=0.41, G2=0.05, G3=0.26, G4= 0.64. In general, the classification system had a Kappa coefficient=0.38. The foods in which there was more discrepancy were: instant coffee, ground beans and water–based ice cream, classified into the 4 groups; pre–cooked rice, corn tortilla and corn tamale were classified into at least 3 groups of the NOVA system.
Conclusions:
For the evaluated group, the NOVA system overall presented a concordance rated as “fair”, being especially good for the group of ultra processed products, however, it is shown that there is a discrepancy in the criteria of the students in the perception of the definitions of the NOVA system. The use of a more structured system in its definitions or with a greater number of categories could be more beneficial for the study of eating patterns.
Escobar–Sánchez, M., Alvarado–Tzul, C., Solomons, N.
Center for Studies of Sensory Impairment, Aging and Metabolism (CeSSIAM), Guatemala City, Guatemala
ABSTRACT
Introduction:
Child malnutrition is a public health problem in Guatemala, especially in rural settings, where double burden of nutrition has been evidenced and foods with a higher degree of processing are increasingly available. A high consumption of ultra–processed foods has been linked to an increase in obesity and the development of chronic diseases. The NOVA food classification system (Monteiro, 2019) defines four processing level groups that allow evaluating the impact of these on the food pattern.
Objective:
Identify the group to which the foods reported belong to in the diet of rural schoolchildren in the western highlands of Guatemala, according to the NOVA system.
Methods:
A self–drawn depiction of each meal and snack consumed over a 24–hour period was collected in 58 girls and 57 boys (n=115) aged 8–11 years in a semi–rural public school in Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. The foods consumed were grouped according to the NOVA system as unprocessed or minimally processed foods (G1), processed culinary ingredients (G2), processed foods (G3) and ultra–processed products (G4) by five local nutrition professionals following the definitions of each group.
Results:
The diet of the schoolchildren consisted of 153 foods, classified in each group: 51.6% in G1, 4.6% G2, 10.5% G3 and 33.3% in G4. The most mentioned of G1 by respondents were: drinking water by 114 (99.1%), instant coffee by 101 (87.8%), corn tortilla by 96 (83.5%), onions by 90 (78.3%), eggs by 71 (61.7%), and tomatoes by 65 (56.5%). The most mentioned of the G4 were: Incaparina® by 80 (69.6%), chicken bouillon powder by 59 (51.3%), liquid whole milk by 48 (41.7%), powdered whole milk by 49 (42.6%), noodles by 44 (38.3%), and powdered drink mix by 27 (23.5 %). Boys consumed fewer of the reported items (121/153=79.1%) as compared to the girls (135/153=88.2%).
Conclusions:
Minimally processed foods are the basis of the diet of the evaluated schoolchildren, ultra–processed foods represent at least a third of the food consumed, and in half of the schoolchildren, these foods consisted of fortified products, which could be necessary to contribute to an adequate quality of diet.
Escobar–Sánchez, M., Alvarado–Tzul, C., Solomons, N.
Center for Studies of Sensory Impairment, Aging and Metabolism (CeSSIAM), Guatemala City, Guatemala
ABSTRACT
Introduction:
Processed and ultra–processed foods have been associated with contributing negatively to people’s health. Transition to food causes the consumption of these foods to increase and have an impact from early childhood. The NOVA food classification system (Monteiro, 2019) defines four processing level groups. Little is known about the energy and nutrient intake according to their processing in the rural population of Guatemalan schoolchildren.
Objective:
To identify the energy and nutrient intake according to the different components of the NOVA classification in rural schoolchildren in the western highlands of Guatemala.
Methods:
A self–drawn depiction of each meal and snack consumed over a 24–hour period was collected in 58 girls and 57 boys (n=115) aged 8–11 years in a semi–rural public school in Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. The foods consumed were grouped according to the NOVA system as unprocessed or minimally processed foods (G1), processed culinary ingredients (G2), processed foods (G3), and ultra–processed products (G4). The energy and nutrient contribution of each component was analyzed with reference to assorted food composition tables and nutrient database.
Results:
The average energy intake was 2025 ± 541 Kcal/day. The respective energy contributions by classification group were 43,5% by G1, 22.0% by G4, 20.2% by G2 and 14.8% by G3. G1 represented the highest source of macronutrients and micronutrients (median): folate (317 μg), thiamin (0.6 mg), riboflavin (0.5 mg), niacin (10.9 mg), vitamin C (19 mg), calcium (388 mg), iron (7.3 mg), and zinc (5.3 mg). This was followed by G4 with vitamin C (4.1 mg), calcium (220 mg), iron (3.9 mg), and zinc (3.1 mg). Despite the consumption of these nutrients, daily intakes of iron, vitamin C, and vitamin D were low in the schoolchildren’s diet.
Conclusions:
We again show the value of pictorial surveying. Ultra–processed foods and processed culinary ingredients, make comparable energy contributions, with the former being vastly more energy–dense. Without the contribution of ultra–processed products, the gap between the requirement and intake of micronutrients would be wider. Dietary recommendations should not be based solely on the degree of processing in food. Foods within the same category have a highly variable nutrient quantities.
Rivera E1, Zamora A1, Locon M, Solomons NW1, Bibus D2
1 Center for Studies of Sensory Impairment, Aging and Metabolism (CeSSIAM), Guatemala
2 Lipid Technologies LLC, Minnesota, USA
ABSTRACT
Introduction:
The levels of long–chain polyunsaturated fatty acids of the Omega–3 series (LC–PUFA–w3) in fish are generally inversely associated with water temperatures. Guatemala’s Lake Atitlán in is a profoundly deep crater lake, with colder temperatures than the marine waters on its Caribbean or Pacific coasts. Prior surveys here show Omega–3 fatty acids (FAs) in human milk to be higher in lake–dwelling women, as compared to those of the seashores, when analyzed on a population–sample basis.
Objective:
To determine whether self–reported frequency of fish by a convenience sample of women of lakeside villages of Atitlán were associated geographically with the median abundance of LC–PUFA–w3 in the breast milk of nursing women from the corresponding sites.
Methods:
Samples of breast milk were dried on PerkinElmer® 226 five–spot RUO, and FAs quantified at Lipid Technologies LLC, Minnesota, USA in 12 women per lakeside village: San Antonio Palopó (SA); San Lucas Tolimán (SL); and Santiago Atitlán (SO). Abundance of eicospentaenoic acid (EPA); docosopentaenoic acid (DPA); docosohexaenoic acid (DHA) was the focus. Separately, the frequency of fish consumption in the previous week was reported by from 12 to 16 women residents of the same villages. Since we did not have values for both variables in the same individuals, we made recourse to an ecological analysis of median community fish intake versus median community milk FA abundance. We consider of interest as a “trend” any consistency of harmonious progression – lowest– lowest; middle–middle; and highest–highest – for the respective variable medians.
Results:
Median EPA abundance varied from 0.1–0.3, that for DPA from 0.10–0.11, that for DHA from 0.16–0.18, and that for Omega–3 index from 1.51–1.68. Of the 36 women studied, six reported no fish consumption in the previous week, whereas 30 related eating fish from 1–7 times over the prior week. Median weekly fish intakes were: 0.5 (SA); 2.0 (SL); and 5.5 (SO). For none of the four Omega–3 variables was there a harmonic trend progression across the ascending fish intakes.
Conclusion:
Within our constraints of sample–sizes and composite variables, no inference of association of fish consumption and LC–PUFA–w3 in breast milk was detected.
R García–Meza1; N.W. Solomons1
1Center for Studies of Sensory Impairment, Aging and Metabolism (CeSSIAM), Guatemala
ABSTRACT
Introduction:
Human linear growth is determined by nutritional, genetic and environmental factors and may vary in urban and rural settings. Impaired linear growth is affected by adversity and is expressed as short stature and lower extremities’ elongation failure sustained at old age. Sagittal photos had been used to assess ratios of relative length of the torso and the lower extremities in diverse populations.
Objective:
To establish the relationship between stunting and body proportions in elderly from urban and rural settings in the Western Highlands of Guatemala.
Methods:
Data was generated from three independent studies approved by ethical committees. A total of 196 elderly participants (>60 yrs old) were evaluated: 103 women and 93 men, 96 from urban (Quetzaltenango) and 100 from rural (Sololá) settings in the Western Highlands of Guatemala. Anthropometric data (weight and height) was collected by trained professionals using SECA® stadiometers and digital weight scales. Stunting in adults was assessed using standard cutoffs: ≦145cm for women and ≦150cm for men. Sagittal photos were taken using Nikon® Coolpix digital camera and printed–out photos were measured to determine body proportion ratios of relative length of the torso and lower extremities (T/L).
Results:
For urban women (UW) median height of 144.5cm and 53% classified as stunted compares to their rural pears (RW) with 139.2cm and 92% respectively. For men in urban settings (UM) median height of 156.0 and 14% stunting compares to rural men (RM) with 149.9 cm and 52% stunting. Median T/L ratio in no–stunted woman of 0.67 compares to 0.60 with their stunted pears. For men T/L ratio was 0.61 for stunted and non–stunted participants.
Conclusions:
The difference in prevalence of stunting between women and men, in urban and rural settings, could be indicative of adverse conditions for growth and development, specially among rural women. Results suggest that height status among stunted women is affecting body proportions who presented shorter legs.